Most common Textile Inspection System

Piece goods inspection system:

In 1955 ten points piece goods evaluation was approved by the textile distribution & national federation of textiles. This system assigns penalty points to each defect.

Ten points system:- Filling defects penalty
Warp defects                 Penalty                       Full width                    10 points

10-30 ̎                          10 points                   5 ̎ ½ the width:                    5 ″

5-10 ̎                                 5 ″                                1-5 ̎ :-                        3 ″

1-5 ̎                                   3 ″                           up to 1 ̎ :-                        1 ″

Up to 1 ̎ 1 ″

Under the ten point system, a piece is graded a fixed if the total penalty point do not exceed the total yardage of the piece. A piece is graded a ‘second” if the total penalty points exceed the total yardage of the piece.

Four points system:

It is widely used in textiles. It is simple & easy to under stand. Inspection is done about 10% of the product in the shipment. This system has been applied by AAMA (American Apparel manufacturing association).

The four points system classifies classified defects as follow:

Size of defects                                             Penalty

3 ̎ or less                                                     1 point

Over 3 ̎not over 6 ̎                                       2 ″

Over 6 ̎but not over 9 ̎                                 3 ″

Over 9 ̎                                                       4 ″

A maximum 4 points is changed for one leniaroooo yard

Wish You Good Luck..................................
You Should Interested to read RELATED POST on the topics

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TEXTILE ECONOMICS; Product Costing Methods, Job Order Costing System and Process Costing

Product Costing Methods 

The Basic methods of product costing are: 

Job Costing: allocates costs to products that are readily identified by individual units or batches, each of which is independently identifiable. When using the job cost system, costs are accumulated for each individual unit produced, or each separate order of products. This method is especially useful when producing something that is unique or custom-made. Job order costing would be used bya caterer, a garage, a helicopter manufacturer, a construction company and a textbook publisher, 

Contract Costing: a subset of job costing which is applied to relatively large cost units which take a long time to complete, typically over a year (e.g. civil engineering projects, ship building, building and construction etc). A separate account is maintained for each contract. Contract accounts involve: 

• determination of cost of sales 

• annual comparison of value of work certified as a proportion of the contract value and the costs to date as a proportion of total costs as a means of assessing the profit that should be recognised 

• record of payments received on account 

• records future expenses and accrued expenses 

Guidelines for Determining Profit to Date on Contracts No Profit is taken if contract is at an early stage. Reliability (prudence) concept is applied and losses are recorded as incurred or anticipatedIf the contract is near completion a proportion of the profit should be recognised having regard to work certified and costs to date 

Process costing: is applied when goods or services are produced from a series of repetitive or continuous processes or operations and the costs of processing are charged to the process as a whole before being averaged out over the units produced during the period. Process costing is used in a variety of businesses including distilling, water distribution, textiles, paint mixing and glass manufacture. 

Job Order Costing System 

The basic records maintained in a job-costing system include: Job-cost sheet (also called job-cost record or simply job order): records all costs for a particular product, service or batch of products are recorded on the job-cost sheet from: 

Materials requisitions: detail materials and components drawn from stores for particular jobs are priced and summarised, and entered as direct material costs on the job-cost record. Labour time records: show the time a particular direct worker spends on each job and are summarised to give direct labour cost on ‘the job-cost sheet. The manufacturing overhead will often be based on these labour hours or otherwise separately calculated and entered on the job cost sheet separately 

Actual rate vs. predetermined rate (normal) costing system 

Job-costing systems uses actual costs of direct labour and materials to determine the cost of individual jobs. However, a problem arrives with overhead costs, which are dependent on what is happening to the other jobs that are in process at the same time and can only be known after the event. Actual rate costing is a method of job costing that traces indirect costs to a cost object by using the actual indirectcost rate(s) times the actual unit of absorption base (direct labour, machine hours etc.), Predetermined rate (normal) costing systems use estimated amounts (at a normal level of activity) for the manufacturing overhead costs that are applied to each job and estimated amounts for the absorption base to calculate a predetermined overhead rate. This rate is based on the total estimated overhead costs for the period and the estimated usage of the absorption base (e.g. machine/labour hours). 

General Approach to Job Order Costing 

The following seven-steps approach is used to assign actual costs to individual jobs 

l Identify the chosen cost object(s) 

2.Identify the direct costs of the job 

3.Select the cost-absorption base(s} 

4.Identify the indirect costs associated with each cost-absorption base 

5.Compute the rate per unit of each cost absorption base to allocate indirect costs to jobs 6.Compute the indirect costs allocated to the job 

7.Compute the cost of the job by adding all direct costs assigned to it 

Process Costing 

Process costing (a.k.a. continuous operation costing) is a method that is applied when goods or services are produced from a series of repetitive or continuous processes or operations and the costs of processing are charged to the process as a whole before being averaged out over the units produced during the period. ‘A process costing system involves the costs of producing similar items being accumulated and allocated to the products by averaging costs over large number of nearly identical products. The average cost per unit is calculated by dividing the total production cost by the number of units produced. Process costing would be used by businesses such as food processors, household product manufacturers, chemical processors and oil refiners.. 

General approach to process costing 

I. collect cost data for the period on production cost report; 

2. prepare statement of physical flows and equivalent units of output for the period; 3. ascertain the total costs to be accounted for this period; 

4. calculate the cost per equivalent unit; 

5. apportion cost between finished output and work-inprogress; and 

6. check that all costs accounted for 

Similarities between process costing and absorption costing 

Both track the same manufacturing cost elements: DMs, DL, 

DEs and Mfg OhdsBoth involve WIP, FG and COGS 

Differences between process costing and job costing 

• No. of WIP accounts: PCS have many WIP accounts whereas 

JCS have one WIP account 

• Documentation to track costs 

JCS = job cost sheet 

• PCS = production cost report for each process 

• Point at which costs are totaled 

JCS - mfg costs totalled on completion 

• PCS - mfg costs totalled at fixed time intervals 

• Unit cost computation 

JCS - total job costs/no of units produced 

• PCS - total period costs/units produced in the period 

WIP and EQU/V ALENT UNITS 

Processes rarely deal with solely with completed units and therefore we need ‘to deal with output in terms of completed units and those still in the process at various stages of completion in the process. The notion of Equivalent Units enables work in process to be expressed in terms of completed output. 

Equivalent units may be defined as: A notional quantity of completed units substituted for an actual quantity of incomplete physical units, when the aggregate work content of the incomplete units is deemed to be equivalent to that of the substituted quantity of

TEXTILE ECONOMICS; Cost Terminology, Classification and Basic concepts

Cost and Cost Terminology: 

Cost is a resource sacrificed or forgone to achieve a specific objective. It is usually measured as the monetary amount that must be paid to acquire goods and services. A cost must not be confused with an expense, that is that part of costs of the goods or services that has been used up in the process of generating revenues. Actual Cost is the cost incurred (a historical cost) as distinguished nom budgeted costs. 

Cost Object is any activity, product, service or other item for which we can make a separate cost measurement. Examples would include a product, sales area, TV advertising campaign, employee, delivery van etc. 

Costs Classification 

Costs may be analysed into: Manufacturing costs (factory/ production) - Direct: labour, materials and variable overhead Indirect: manufacturing support Non-manufacturing costs - Selling and Marketing, Distribution, Research and Development Finance, General & Administrative 

Handout: Cost classification 

There are two basic stages of accounting for costs: 

1) Cost Accumulation: the collection of cost data in some organised way based on some natural classification such as materials or labour, using an accounting system. 

2) Cost Assignment: involves 

(a) tracing accumulated costs to one or more cost objects; and 

(b) allocating/apportioning accumulated costs to one or more cost objects such as activities, departments, products, customers etc. 

Handout: Basic cost concepts: 

Cost Assignment Methods

Traceability is the ability to assign a cost directly to a cost object in an economically feasible way using a causal relationship. Tracing is the assignment of costs to cost objects using either an observable measure of the cost object s resource consumption or factors that allegedly capture the causal relationship. “ Drivers are factors that cause changes in resource usage, activity usage, costs and revenues. Resource drivers measure the demands placed on resources by activities and are used to assign the cost of resources to activities by allocation and apportionment. 

For example, factory rates apportioned by floor space or supervisor time allocated to different production departments. 

Resource drivers also allocate/apportion service activities to production activities. Activity drivers measure the demands placed on activities by cost objects and are used to assign the cost of activities to cost objects. For example, the number of inspection hours used to assign the cost of inspection to individual products, or machine hours as a basis for absorbing departmental indirect costs. 

Direct tracing is the process of assigning costs to cost objects based on physically observable causal relationships (direct materials and labour). 

Driver tracing is assigning costs using drivers, which are causal factors. Often this means that costs are first traced to activities using resource drivers and then to cost objects using activity drivers. The driver approach relies on identification of factors that allegedly capture the causal relationship. 

Handout: Functional cost classification 

All costs can broadly be classified into manufacturing and non-manufacturing costs. Manufacturing costs include all costs of converting raw materials into completed products and non-manufacturing costs are all costs other than manufacturing costs. Manufacturing costs can further be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. 

• direct costs of a cost object are those that are related to a given cost object (product, department. etc.) and that calibe traced to it in an economically feasible way. Direct costs can be divided into direct materials and direct labour (and possibly direct expenses). 

• indirect costs are related to the particular cost object but cannot be traced to it in an economicallyfeasible way instead the costs are allocated to cost objects. 

Identifying product costs for a manufacturing firm 

There are typically two major cost elements: 

• Direct costs 

• Indirect overhead Cost 

The direct costs include direct materials, labour and expenses. 

The overhead costs include indirect material, labour and expenses split between: 

• Establishment costs (expenses incurred in providing the product or service environment [factory overheads] 

• Selling and Distribution costs (all costs of marketing and distributing the product); Administration costs (all costs of directors, managers and administrators and their associated expenses in terms of office overheads) 

• Finance costs (all costs of borrowed capital including interest and expenses incurred in raising funds) For product costs we are concerned with direct costs and establishment costs. 

Direct vs. indirect materials 

The cost of those materials and components that can be directly and conveniently traced to a unit of product are called direct materials (e.g. steel, windscreen-wipers or gearbox In a car). _Materials not directly traceable, and those extremely small in monetary value, are typically called indirect materials (e.g. dishwasher detergent in a fast-food restaurant, oil for production equipment, rags for cleaning or screws in a furniture factory) 

Direct VS. indirect labour 

The costs of production labour that can be directly and conveniently traced to a unit of product are called direct labour (e.g. workers on an assembly line, or chef in a restaurant) is direct labour, while labour costs that are not directly traceable, or those extremely small in monetary value, are typically called indirect labour (e.g. storekeepers, foremen, or secretaries) 

Production/factory/manufacturing overheads 

All costs related to the manufacturing operations, except for direct materials and direct labour, are called production/factory/ manufacturing overhead. Examples of such costs include, factory rent, factory rates, factory heating and lighting, depreciation of plant and equipment, insurance of the factory, and store costs.

Water Pollution Reduction in the Textile Industry

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Why was the project undertaken? 

During the 1970’s Hammarsdale was being developed as an industrial Hub to provide employment in KwaZulu. The textile industry in particular was being attracted to the area. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry constructed the Hammarsdale Waste Water Treatment Works (HWWTW) to service the new industrial hub. There was poor environmental planning for the expanding Hammarsdale Hub. Because of this the quality of water in the Sterkpruit River was declining and the organic capacity of the HWWTW was at its limit. The effluent discharged by companies to the HWWTW was in certain circumstances highly corrosive and in one instance led to sewerage pipes being damaged and requiring replacement. Inlet screens designed to remove excessive materials were producing 25 cubic meters of waste per week that had to be disposed of at a low hazard waste disposal site. 

The high strength organic coloured effluents from the textile industries together with that arising from a chicken abattoir overloaded the works thus resulting in the colouration of the Sterkspruit River. This pollution was exacerbated since the treatment works was not designed to remove salts from the textile industries, which passed directly through the works into the River. Unfortunately the salt issue remains a problem but two companies, Gelvenor and Dano Textiles are investigating recycling their effluent and implementing cleaner production technologies to reduce the load. 

In 1982 Umgeni Water took over the HWWTW who assisted the University of Natal to deal with the issue of capacity by involving the Hammarsdale Industrial Conservancy in a campaign to persuade industry to reduce industrial waste loads. These efforts to minimise waste and encourage cleaner production resulted in energy, water and effluent treatment savings, but still there was little improvement in the quality of effluent delivered to HWWTW. At this stage Umgeni Water was applying an effluent tariff at a flat rate, which did not account for effluent strength. As a result there was no legal or financial incentive to reduce effluent loads. 

What Processes were undertaken? 

The incorporation of Hammarsdale and the nearby township of Mpumalanga into eThekwini Municipality and the Water Services Act of 1997 were significant factors leading to the reduction of effluent load. The Water Services Act stipulated that Municipalities were to become Water Services Authorities. Etekwini Municipality chose to own and operate Hammarsdale WWTW and having by-laws to support the collection of sewerage rates and to levy an additional charge for high strength effluent. 

The by-laws required that companies discharging to the Hammarsdale WWTW were permitted. A cooperative agreement between the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority and eThekwini Municipality led to the development of a five year integrated pollution control permit. The permit set targets for effluent colour. The permit also placed stress on waste minimisation / source control techniques which would reduce the salinity and therefore the electrical conductivity (a unit used for the measurement of the salt content of water) of discharged effluent. 

This approach to tariffs and pollution control permits was the innovative spark which led to the accelerated development of waste minimisation / source control techniques which could ensure that the effluent from the textile industry was at an acceptable standard. 

The development of the waste minimisation / source control technology, which was installed at Gelvenor, was funded by the European Union and the Water Research Commission. Gelvenor was identified since it was an ISO 14001 compliant company and, together with the potential trade effluent incentives was the most likely to succeed. This was an important decision, as the area needed a successful example to market the idea of cleaner production and better environmental controls. 

Project Description This project has two main components. The first is the five-year integrated pollution control permit, which sets targets for effluent colour, electrical conductivity and places stress on waste minimisation / source control techniques. 

The second component was the development of the waste minimisation / source control technology, which could benefit companies through reduced tariffs. In Gelvenor’s case this led to a reduction of chemicals, water and electricity in the production processes, and the discolouration of water was addressed through coagulation and settlement of the dyestuff in its effluent. 

What Positives have resulted from this project? 

Positives Hammarsdale Industrial township is now on the road to becoming more economically and environmentally sustainable. This has happened for various reasons. 

Firstly, the cost of utilities has been reduced to companies. Once cleaner production technology has been installed in the textile industry this can lead to reduced water use because consumption can be reduced if the treated effluent is recycled. For example, recycled water can be used in cooling towers and in air conditioning plants and this could lead to a savings of 40% on water. Further uses for the recycled water will be for dying, in toilets and for cooking. 

Because the quality of the effluent has improved, Gelvenor is being charged at a lower tariff, which can lead to a savings of R100, 000 per month. Using the same incentive scheme Rainbow Chickens also reduced its wasted load by 50%. This means that there is 25% less waste to treat at the works and therefore eThekwini, does not have to extend HWWTW with massive savings. The use of the cleaner production technology has released capacity at HWWTW, which can now be used to extend sanitation to approximately 8500 households in nearby Mpumalanga. 

The financial and environmental sustainability of certain companies has improved due to reduced water bills and effluent disposal costs yet improving environmental controls. These savings would more than finance the cleaner production technology at a rate of R4.5 million per annum. Gelvenor’s profit margin would increase after paying off the equipment cost over five years but Rainbow would recoup its costs in less than two. 

Because water effluent is cleaner the ecosystems of the Sterkspruit River and the Shongweni Dam will automatically improve. This will also improve the sustainability of farming in the immediate area and nature reserve surrounding Shongweni Dam will also have cleaner water input. 

Negatives: 

The only negative is that it is difficult to address the salt issue since technology for salt removal from water is extremely expensive. Two companies however are investigating the salt removal and re-use of the water. 

What were the most important lessons learnt in this project? 

Co-operative governance really works. Because of the shortage of skills national and local government teamed up with international experts, local academics and parastatal organizations in order to address a common goal. No action by an individual organization would have succeeded on its own. Stakeholder collaboration need not be on a formal basis provided that the goal is clear, but does require a champion. 

Stakeholder collaboration can extend the use of the technology. 

-The University of KwaZulu-Natal is researching with Water Research Commission funding the re-use of saline effluents from textile mills. 

-Dano Textiles is investigating cutting-edge technology using nitrogen blankets in its dye-baths to reduce the quantity of sodium hydrosulphite and thus the salt content of its effluent. 

-Dye-bath effluent treatment trials have been launched using excess anaerobic sludge digestion capacity at Mpumulanga wastewater works. 

The cost of technology can be prohibitive. De-salination technology, despite major strides still remains a prohibitively expensive means of treating textile mill effluent. Farming still remains a problem because of salinity issues but the aesthetics and the organic contamination from Hammarsdale would improve.

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Manufactured Fibres or Textile Fiber manufacturing

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The producer of natural fibres and the producer of manufactured fibres are engaged in two very different businesses. The farmer who raises cotton, the rancher who herds sheep or the grower of silkworms is trying to produce a maximum quantity of fibre from animal or vegetable sources. The grower may attempt to improve the quality of the seeds or breeding stock but is limited in production by natural factors. If the demand for the product increases or decreases, the grower cannot, like the manufactured fibre producer, simply increase or decrease the short-term supply of fibre.

Manufactured Fibres

The term-manufactured fibre describes a fibre produced commercially through regeneration from natural materials or synthesized from chemicals. Trade associations in the manufactured fibres industry may be industry wide or specific to particular fibres. The American Fibre Manufacturers Association, Inc. (AFMA) is the trade organization for the manufactured fibres industry, conducting many of the same kinds of promotional activities as described for the natural fibres associations.

AFMA always uses generic fibre names-such as polyester, nylon, rayon, and so on-in printed materials, while its individual fibre producing members concentrate on their trademarked fibre names, such as DuPont’s Dacron@ (polyester) or Wellman’s Fortrel@ (polyester). Producers of particular fibres may also join together to form fibre-specific trade associations. The Acrylic Council, the Polyester Council, and the American Polyolefin Association are examples of fibre-focused trade associations.

Production in the manufactured fibres industry differs from the production of natural fibres in a number of ways. While the manufactured fibres industry must depend on available supplies of the raw materials from which fibres are made, this industry is not dependent on natural forces that regulate the supply of fibre. A great many manufactured fibres are made from materials derived from petroleum, and therefore supplies and costs of raw materials may be affected by changes in the price of oil. Manufacturers can regulate production according to supply and demand. Manufacturers can also help to create demand for increased quantities of fibre products through advertising and other publicity.

Many manufactured fibre producers and firms are, or were originally, chemical companies. The fibre manufacturer generally sells the fibres produced to a firm that will make yarns and/or fabrics. These fibres may be sold as unbranded products or commodities. When fibres are sold in this way, the purchaser has no obligation to the fibre manufacturer to produce a product of any specific quality. Products must meet no minimum standards. In short, the buyers can do whatever they wish with the fibres they have purchased. Other fibres may be sold as trademarked fibres. The manufacturer owns the trademark, which is denoted by placing either the symbol @ or TM after the trademarked name. Trademarked names are always capitalized-for example, Micrell@ polyester. The owner of a trademark can bring court action to prevent unauthorized use of the trademark.

When the fibre manufacturer’s trademarked name is carried by the finished product, the fibre manufacturer has some control over the quality of the fabric, although it is still possible that a poorly made garment could be constructed from the fabric. One advantage to the fabric and garment manufacturers of buying a trademarked fibre is that they can capitalize on the publicity and promotional materials distributed by the fibre manufacturer. Licensed trademarked fibres are sold only to those manufacturers whose fabrics meet the standards established by the fibre manufacturer. Standards may be set in regard to the construction of fabrics, the manufacture of apparel or other products, and, in blends or combinations of two or more fibres, the appropriate proportion of fibres to be combined. As an alternative to trade marking, some fibre companies assign certification mark names to yarns or fabrics made from their fibres. Such designations require that the items identified with the certification mark meet criteria established by the fibre manufacturer.

Not only do the fabric and garment manufacturers benefit from customer familiarity with the brand name of the fibre, but the fibre manufacturer often shares the costs of advertising or mounts intensive publicity campaigns to promote the fabric, the final product, and even retail outlets where the products are sold.

The interest of manufactured fibre producers in their products does not end when the fibre is sold. Because techniques for spinning and fabricating manufactured fibres may not be uniform for all fibres, the fibre producer provides technical assistance to the fabric manufacturer. Technical bulletins are published that recommend the most effective ways of processing fibres. Consultants from the fibre companies provide information about new developments in textile machinery and finishing. Research and development in fibre-producing companies is often focused on more effective ways of handling manufactured fibres during fabrication.

Fibre producers assist manufacturers of fabrics, garments, or other products to locate sources of yarns and fabrics. The marketing department of a fibre-producing company also maintains a library of fabrics that can be used by manufacturers and their designers.

A wide variety of other services is offered to the direct customers of the fibre companies and to the general public. Exhibits of current products are presented, often at trade and professional meetings. Educational materials for schools, retailers, and consumers are prepared and distributed. Retail stores may be assisted in promoting trademarked products through fashion shows, publicity materials, or cooperative advertising in which the fibre producer pays some part of the advertising costs. Fashion consultants may be available to assist the designers of fabrics, clothes, and furnishings.

Many of these activities are part of an organized advertising and public relations program. In addition to the services offered that result indirectly in publicity and goodwill for the company, direct advertising is also utilized. Besides advertising cooperatively with manufactures of retail products and retail stores, fibre companies also advertise in publications ranging from those for the trade to general magazines. Research and development (often abbreviated as R & D) is an important function in most large textile fibre companies.

Researchers are constantly looking for new fibres, fibre modifications, and improvements in processing at all steps of manufacture. The whole synthetic fibres industry might be said to have grown out of the research and development program at the chemical company Dupont, for it was in this program that W. H. Caruthers first synthesized nylon.

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Industrial Textiles; The Major Textile Production Segments

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Industrial Textiles 

Most consumers are not aware of the segment of the textile industry known as industrial textiles, even though they encounter these products every day. Industrial textiles is the most commonly used name for textile applications in agriculture, air and water filtration, architecture, automobiles, banners and flags, casual furniture, environmental protection, earth stabilization, medical products, recreational products, and transportation vehicles. Apparel items in this category are those in which performance is paramount: clean room garments, protective gloves and clothing for industry and farming, industry garments that don’t develop electrostatic charges (World of Industrial Fabrics n.d.) 

Other descriptive terms applied to this segment of the industry are industrial fabrics, technical textiles, engineered fabrics, and technical fabrics. Industrial textiles may be woven, knitted, or nonwoven, often of manufactured fibers. Fashion is not a factor in industrial textiles, but instead such functional characteristics as strength, stability, chemical resistance, and weight are likely to be important. Examples of industrial textiles range from small products such as filters and auto safety belts to enormous structures such as roofs, tents, and storage tanks. Roofs and other building structures encompass the field of textile architecture, a growing area of interest that combines engineering and art design. Consumers of industrial products include the construction, mining, sanitation, and transportation industries; medicine; and the military. 

The industrial fabric segment of the textile field has grown rapidly in recent years. Some of the more dramatic examples of progress in textile technology have come in this area, particularly fiber-reinforced composites for the aerospace industry and geotextiles. Geotextiles are textiles used in soil and soil-based structures such as roads, dams, and erosion-control products. 

The Major Textile Production Segments 

The textile industry is segmented into three large groupings: Apparel, the textiles used in clothing; interior furnishings (also called home fashions) the textiles used in furniture, bath, kitchen and bed; and industrial, the textiles used in such items as luggage, flags, boat sails, gauze bandages, dust filters, and so on. The market is divided into approximately 40 percent apparel, 40 percent interior furnishings, and 20 percent industrial and miscellaneous consumer-type products. 

The textile industry uses many different raw materials and many steps in the process of manufacturing a finished textile material. Each segment in the pipeline is not only involved with production, but also with buying the product of a previous producer. Thus, the entire process from fiber to consumer (or other ultimate buyer) involves the coordinated activities of many firms and many individuals within each firm. The following sections describe the major production segments, each of which is discussed in much more detail later in this book. 

It takes almost a year from the time a fiber supplier starts delivering fibers for yarn manufacturing until the completed garment is ready for sale in the retail store. The fiber shipments stop about four months before the start of the retail season. The yarn manufacturers begin delivering their yarns to the mills about nine months before the garments are to be sold in the retail stores and stop about two months before. The finished fabrics start to be shipped to the garment manufacture about six moths before and continue to be sold into the retail-selling season. 

Some apparel manufactures start cutting fabrics four months before the season and many continue to cut after the season has begun. There are two main retail-selling seasons for apparel. They are fall and spring. The former starts about August first and the latter begin about February first. The other seasons include summer and Holiday.

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Textile Terms, Important Textile term and definitions

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Fibres 

Fibre is one of the most important textile terms. Fibers are the smallest part of the fabric. They are fine, hair-like substances, categorized as either natural or manufactured. Cotton, which grows on a plant, and wool, which is shorn from a sheep, are two examples of natural fibers. Manufactured fibers are created from chemicals and include acrylic, nylon, and polyester. They are produced by chemical companies, such as E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company and Hoechst Celanese Corporation. 

Yarns 

The term yarn means the raw material of fabric. Most textile materials contain yarns, which are continuous thread-like strands composed of fibers that have been twisted together. (Felt is an example of a material made directly from fibers but containing no yarns). There are various types of yarn, from flat and dull to slubby and lustrous. Each one could be made from different fibers. 

Fabrics

The definition of fabric is very simple. Most fabrics are made from yarns and are either woven or knitted. The companies that make fabric are called mills; Springs Industries and Milliken & Company are two of the largest mills. The range of fabric types and weights is tremendous, fulfilling a variety of consumer demands. 

Dyeing and Printing 

Color is usually applied to the woven or knitted fabric by either Dyeing or Printing. The term dyeing is the process for imparting a solid color to textiles (blue, green, red, etc.). The term printing is the process of imparting designs to textiles (dots, floral, stripes, etc.). The purpose is to make the fabric more appealing. These operations are performed in dye plants or pint plants, and the companies are called dye houses or pint houses. 

Finishing

Most fabrics need additional treatments termed as finishes before they can be used. For example, special chemicals are used to make a fabric water-repellent and suitable for a raincoat. A special brushing machine is required to make the fuzzy surface on flannel fabrics. The processes are done in finishing plants whose facilities are most often part of dye plants or print plants. After finished fabric has been produced, it is usually used by other manufacturers to make such items as blouses, draperies, tents, or automobile tires. A particular fabric might be used for several different articles, such as a dress, a shirt, and curtains Frequently, the same fabric that is shipped to the apparel or interior furnishings manufacturer is also sold to a retail store for direct sale to home sewers. 

Automation and Computer Use 

As with practically every other endeavor of our lives, computers and electronic technologies have had a tremendous impact on textile-related industries and businesses. Computerization has made a difference in design, decision-making, communication, and process control in manufacturing. Feedback on consumer preferences and product sales is readily available to fiber and fabric producers, apparel manufacturers, dyers, and finishers. The computer has become a routine tool for apparel and interior designers and for product developers; and control of manufacturing processes is increasingly a job for computer programmers. 

The textile and apparel industries have formed an organization called the Textile/ Clothing Technology Corporation or (TC) 2. The purpose of TC2 is to conduct research about applications of electronic technology in the textile and apparel industries and to educate executives, engineers, technologists, and educators about automated systems, their potential, and their use. (TC) 2 is funded jointly, largely by matching grants, by the industry and the federal government. 

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Computer-aided design (CAD) in textiles is applied to the design of yarns and fabrics and to coloration. In those firms that are vertically integrated, CAD may also be applied to apparel design and manufacture. Programs allow the textile designer to develop and modify designs interactively, speeding up the process and providing electronic links to production. 

Recent techniques in three-dimensional (3-D) imaging enable simulation of the actual fabric structure and texture on screen and advances in color printing allow better reproduction of the design on paper or other media. Designs can be scanned into the system and then modified or redesigned. CAD applications for knitted fabrics and garments have advanced rapidly. A variety of CAD systems that interface design and construction in the production of woven fabrics and knitted goods are currently available and in use. New technologies have also been developed to predict the drape of fabric on 3-D moving figures, integrating the fabric and apparel design stages. This involves mathematical modeling using fabric behavioral properties. The fabric’s physical characteristics are separated from the surface design so that different types of motion can be applied to any design (Gray 1994; Gray 1998). (See Figure 1.10.) This, along with the textile design capabilities described above, allows merchandisers to create “virtual samples” for customers (Ross 1998). Computer figures are also used in 3-D scanning, a development in CAD, that is moving the apparel manufacturing customization, which is the mass production of custom garments. Women’s jeans produced through such a process were first marketed in November 1994 (Rifkin 1994).

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Flame Resistant Textiles by Flame Resistance Finishing

F1ame-Resistant Textiles 

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Textile products can be made flame resistant by using fibers that are inherently flame resistant or by application of a flame resistant finish. Modacrylic fibers offer adequate flame resistance at a moderate cost and have some use in carpets, curtains, and children’s sleepwear. Many other synthetic fibers shrink from ignition flames, providing some protection. Untreated polyester and nylon, for example, will pass the test for children’s sleepwear based on this characteristic. 

The more thermally stable materials such as asbestos, glass fiber, the aramids, PBI, and PBO could be called fireproof substances that will not burn. Glass fiber has many industrial uses and may be used to a limited extent in household textile products such as window shades or lamp shades. Thermally stable synthetic fibers have not been developed for general use but rather are intended for specialized protective clothing for industrial and military uses. Not only are they expensive, but they also lack the aesthetic features that would make them useful in consumer products. 

For fibers that are not flame resistant, a flame-retardant treatment can be applied. Durable finishes for cotton and cotton blend fabrics contain phosphorus which reacts chemically with the fibers and inhibits the production of compounds that fuel the flame. Commercial flame-retardant finishes are Pyrovatex, Proban, and Pyron, the latter produced by Ciba Chemicals. 

Finishes for synthetic fibers have bromine that quenches the flame by reducing the generation of flammable gases. Tris-2, 3- dibromopropyl phosphate (TRIS) was used for several years to impart flame resistance to nylon and polyester, but was suspected of causing cancer in laboratory animals. Since its removal from the market, and modifications in the test procedure for children’s sleepwear, nylon and polyester are not usually finished with a flame-retardant treatment. 

A particular problem in textile flammability is the burning of cotton/polyester blends. Since polyester is less flammable than cotton, one would expect blended fabrics to be less hazardous than all cotton fabrics. This is unfortunately not the case, because the char left as the cotton burns serves to hold the melting and dripping polyester in the flame. This is referred to as a “scaffolding” effect that prevents the polyester from dripping away, as it would do in a 100 percent polyester fabric. 

The polyester remains in the flame and contributes to the burning. Wool is inherently moderately resistant to burning and provides some protection in apparel and interior furnishings. For more stringent uses such as airplane seats, however, wool is given a flame-retardant treatment. A common finish for wool is Zirpro. performance standards that materials are required to meet are set forth in the CFR. These tests described above usually have a single pass/fail criterion. A wide variety of additional tests for flammability can be conducted to provide information on burning behavior and effectiveness of finishes. 

Many of these methods require test samples of considerable size or even whole garments. DuPont, Eastman Kodak, and the University of Minnesota have developed thermal testing manikins with heat sensors located in various parts of the figure. Tests performed using these figures can determine not only the combustibility of the fabric being tested but also the location of hot spots and can furnish data about the transfer of heat. They can also assess effects of fabric layers such as a cotton dress worn over a nylon slip. 

There are tests for carpets other than the pill test required by the federal standard. The Flooring Radiant Panel Test is said to simulate conditions of interior fires more effectively than other carpet tests. As a result, it is likely to be used by governmental and other regulatory agencies that require the more extensive product evaluation that carpeting installed in hospitals and facilities participating in Medicare and Medicaid programs must meet. 

An area of considerable interest in flammability testing of interiors is computer simulation or virtual tests to determine the hazards of real-life situations. For example, data on the furnishings in a prototype room can be used to predict the results of a fire (Gorman 1994). More realistic measures of fire hazards can be obtained and used in such predictive models. 

These measures, including total heat release, rate of heat release, and toxic gases evolved, are the real dangers from fires involving textiles. resin holds yarns together at the points where the yarns interlace. Resin antis lip finishes are durable. Other antislip finishes can be created by coating silica compounds on fabrics. However, these finishes are only temporary.

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STUDY ON THE BARRIERS OF HIGHER PRODUCTION AND ITS REMEDIES IN THE GERMENTS INDUSTRY

School:                               Science and Engineering

Course of Studies:            B.Sc. in Textile Engineering

Supervising Teacher    

Professor Dr. Md. Abul Kalam Azad

Guest Faculty,  Professor.

Department of Textile engineering,

Southeast University.

ABSTRACT

Barriers of production are the major issue in apparel garmentmanufacturing which determines the effectiveness of total garments system and run the process towards the up to mark standard. The main objective of this project is to determine the suitable tools can be used specially for textile garments manufacturing, find out the problems restricting the production, generating proper solution and implement them in a proper way. In this study all data included of production capacity both for past state and present state which shows the comparative improvement of before implementation and after implementation of these tools. Methodology of this project was to find out the barriers, non productive time and determine the best possible way to eliminate major problems which are responsible for productivity loss in apparel garments sector.

The phase-out of the quota is likely to have particular significance for the export of Bangladesh apparels to the US market. MFA’s impacts are not much related to a question of our $2 billion exports to the USA; or the $5 billion worth of exports made by Bangladesh globally. Rather, it is a question of how Bangladesh’s entire economy will be affected by the issue of quota phase out. Readymade garment exports constitute about 85% of Bangladesh’s annual export and provide direct employment to 1.5 million females and indirectly an additional 8 to 10 million people. The global clothing trade is evolving on a continuous basis and that the phase out of quota restrictions and forming of trade blocs has become a reality. Moreover Bangladesh is convulsed by fierce class struggles, centered on the country’s garment industry. Many tens of thousands of workers have gone on strike, blocked roads, attacked factories and other buildings, demonstrated, fought the police and rioted in the streets. Every day comes news of fresh strikes in a variety of industries —mainly the ready-made garment (RMG) sector, but also mill workers, river transport workers, rail workers, journalists, lecturers and teachers. A massive army and police presence around garment factories, in some cases completely blockading and creating check points for entry to Export ProcessingZones, temporarily calmed things; but strikes continued to take place at numerous factories, leading to solidarity strikes from nearby workplaces and semi- spontaneous demonstrations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Industrial Attachment Course is an academic function of the Textile Engineering Department of Southeast University.

At first we desire to express our deepest sense of gratitude of almighty Allah for giving us knowledge, energy and patience for completing the project work successfully.

A number of people have made significant contributions in preparing this report. Their insights, advice and suggestions helped us a lot.

We wish to express our deepest gratitude to Syed Fakhrul Hasan, Professor & Chairman of Textile Engineering Department, SEU, for his continuous guidance, invaluable & constructive comments and endless encouragement throughout the research work and the preparation of this project. With profound regard we gratefully acknowledge our respected  teacher Professor Dr. Md. Abul Kalam Azad  his generous help and day to day suggestion during preparation of the project. Guest Faculty, Department of Textile Engineering, SEU. He has enriched us with necessary ideas and concepts for incessant improvement of the report.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mr. Salahuddin Ahmed, AGM(IE),  for providing us all necessary information & guide line. His valuable opinion has enriched our knowledge to carry out the training and portray the information in a logical sequence

We like to give thanks especially to our friends and many individuals, for their enthusiastic encouragements and helps during the preparation of this report us by sharing ideas regarding this topic.

We would like to thank and acknowledge to all Operators, Workers, Production Officers, Production managers, Work study Officers, IT Officers, AGM of all sections, Sardagonj, Kashimpur, Gazipur, Bangladesh.

Finally, thanks for those who helped us directly and indirectly during the different stages of the present project work.

 

Contents

2.1. Factors of higher production:

2.2. Problems Regarding With RMG

2.3. Safety Problems

2.4. External and Internal Barriers of Higher Production

2.4.1. Economical problems:

2.4.1.1. Community problems:

2.4.1.2. Political problems:

2.4.1.2.1. Hartal :

2.4.1.2.2. Strike :

2.4.1.2.3. Internal politics :

 2.4.1.3. Transportation problem:

2.4.1.3.1. Internal transportation:

2.4.1.3.2. External transportation:

2.4.1.4. Drudge Problem:

2.5. Inventory Section

2.6. Cutting section

2.6.1 Remedies :

2.7. Production section :

2.8. Finishing section :

3.1. Tools & Equipments to be used for doing this work:

3.2. Procedure/Method for doing this job:

3.3. Flow chart of Garments manufacturing:

3.4. Barriers of each section and its remedies:

3.4.1. Sample section:

3.4.2. Cutting section:

3.4.2.1. Worker’s absenteeism of Spreading:

3.4.2.2. Delay fabric receiving:

3.4.2.3. Power Problem

3.4.2.4. Type of marker

3.5. Other common barriers of cutting section

3.6. Suggestion for cutting floor to DBL group

3.7. Future invention

3.8.  Sewing section:

3.8.1.  Different types of sewing defects:

3.8.2. Reason of needle breakage:

3.8.3.  Sewing section problems

3.9. Finishing section:

3.10. Social &Environmental Information in DBL Group:

3.10.1. Scope of employment opportunity:

3.10.2.  Internship Program:

3.10.3. Environmental pollution control:

 3.10.4.  Noise, dust pollution control and air emission:

3.10.5.  Health, Safety and hygiene awareness:

3.11.  Policy Regime of Government

3.12. Infrastructural Impediments

3.13.  Labor Productivity

3.14.  Supportive Government Policy

3.15.  Limitations of the Report

4.1. CONCLUSION

4.2. RECOMMENDATION FOR THE COMPANY

8.4.3.3 Shrinkage data    Error

8.4.4      Experiment No: 01.

8.4.5      Experimental data: 02

9.            Steam relax dryer description:

9.1.1      Features:

9.1.2      Technical specifications:

9.1.3      High Efficiency Blower Device of Drying:               

9.1.4      Over feeding area:

9.1.5      Structure of Nozzle:

9.1.6      Air contorl & speed system:

 9.1.7     Oil Heating Media:          

9.1.8      Extra Accessories:           

10.          Data from steam dryer:

10.1        Experiment No: 01         

10.2        Experiment No: 02

11.          Discussion:

12.          Conclusion:

List of table:

List of figure

Referrence:

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SELECTION OF DYEING PROCESS FOR DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIAL

SELECTION OF DYEING PROCESS:

Even dyes that belong to the same class can have differing degrees of colorfastness to the same condition, so that the consumer has no real guarantee of color permanence unless a label specifies that a particular fabric is colorfast. Dye performance labeling is not required by any form of legislation or regulation. Some manufacturers do, however, include colorfastness information on labels. Such labels will generally describe the conditions under which the fabric is colorfast, such as “colorfast to laundering, but not to chlorine bleaching” or “colorfast to sunlight.” A few terms may be found on labels that carry an assurance of colorfastness, such as trademarks that have been applied to solution-dyed synthetic fibers. The colorfastness of one class of dyes, the vat dyes, is so consistently good for laundering that the term “vat dyed” on labels has come to be accepted as an assurance of good colorfastness.

Textile may be dyed at any stage of their development from fiber into fabric or certain garments by the following methods:

• Stock dyeing, in the fiber stage

• Top dyeing, in the combed wool sliver stage

• Yarn dyeing, after the fiber has been spun into yarn

• Fabric/ Piece dyeing, after the yarn has been constructed into fabric

• Solution pigmenting or dope dyeing before a manmade fiber is extruded through the spinneret

• Garment dyeing after certain kinds of apparel are knitted /Woven

Stock Dyeing:

Mass Coloration

Mass coloration is the addition of color to manufactured fibers before they are extruded. These fibers have been variously known as spun-dyed, solution-dyed or doped.:; ed. iib.,is extruded, it carries the coloring material as an integral part of the

fiber.This “locked-in” color is extremely fast to laundering (that is, it will not diminish); however, such colors can be sensitive to light and bleaching or may fade. The range of colors in which solution dyeing is done is rather limited for economic reasons.

The fiber manufacturer must produce substantial quantities of fiber to justify the expense of adding an extra step during the manufacturing process. Furthermore, fiber production takes place well in advance of the time when fabrics reach the market.

Fashion color trends may change fairly rapidly, so that, by the time a mass colored fabric reaches the market, the color may be out of fashion and not salable. For this reason, spun-dyed fabrics are generally produced in basic colors. Mass coloration is used on acetate to prevent gas fading. Gas fumes in the air may turn some blue or green dyes used for acetate to pink or brown.

Dyeing Fibers

When color is added at the fiber stage, this process is known as fiber dyeing or stock dyeing. It is a batch process in which loose (usually staple) fibers are immersed in a dyebath. dyeing takes place, and the fibers are dried. Exhaustion is quicker in fiber dyeing because the dye liquor has better access to fiber surfaces.

Levelness may be a problem but its effect can be minimized by blending fibers later during yarn processing. Stock-dyed fibers are most often used in tweed or heather effect materials in which delicate shadings of color are produced by combining fibers of varying colors. The yarns in Harris Tweed fabrics are a distinctive example of fiber dyeing. Fiber-dyed fabrics can be identified by untwisting the yarns to see whether the yarn is made up of a variety of different colored fibers. In solid-colored yarns untwisted stock-dyed fibers will be uniform in color, with no darker or lighter areas. Stock dyeing refers to dyeing a staple fiber before it is spun.

There are two methods.

The first method, bale dyeing, applied mostly on wool and all types of manmade fibers, is that of splitting the bale covering on all six sides, placing the entire bale in a specially designed machine (the covering and straps need not be removed), and then forcing the dye liquor through the bale of fiber. In stock dyeing, which is the most effective and expensive method of dyeing, the color is well penetrated into the fibers and does not crock readily.

**yarn & fabric dyeing **

Yarn Dyeing

When dyeing is done after the fiber has been spun into yarn, it is described as yarn dyeing. Cloth made of dyed yarns is called yarn-dyed. Yarn-dyed fabrics are usually deeper and richer in color. Yarn-dyed fabrics intended for laundering must be quite colorfast, or bleeding could occur. The primary reason for dyeing in the yarn form is to create interesting checks, stripes, and plaids with different-colored yarns in the weaving process.

If color has not been added either to the polymer or the fiber, it can be applied to the yarns before they are made into fabrics. Yarns may be dyed in skeins, in packages, or on beams. Special dyeing equipment is required for each of these batch processes. In skein dyeing, large skeins of yarn are loosely wound on sticks and placed in a vat for dyeing. In package dyeing, the yarn is wound onto a number of perforated tubes or springs. The dye is circulated through the tubes to ensure that the yarns have maximum contact with the dye. Beam dyeing is a variation of package dyeing, which uses a larger cylinder onto which a set of warp yarns is wound.

Many types of fabrics utilize yarn of differing colors to achieve a particular design. Stripes in which contrasting sections of color alternate in the length or crosswise direction, chambrays in which one color is used in one direction and another color is used in the other direction, complex dobby or jacquard weaves, and plaids may all require yarns to which color has already been added.

Yarn-dyed fabrics may be identified by unraveling several warp and several filling yarns from the pattern area to see whether they differ in color. Not only will each yarn be a different color, but the yarns will have no darker or lighter areas where they have crossed other yarns.

Usually yarns are dyed to one solid color, but in a variant of the technique called space dyeing, yarns may be dyed in such a way that color-and-white or multicolored effects are formed along the length of the yarn.

Skein (Hank) Dyeing:

Yarn may be prepared in skein, or hank, form and then dyed. The loose arrangement of the yarn allows for excellent dye penetration. The skeins are hung over a rung and immersed in a dye bath in a large container.

Piece Dyeing

Fabrics that are to be a solid color are usually piece dyed. In piece’ dyeing, the finished fabric is passed through a dye bath where the fibers in the fabric absorb the dye. A number of different methods are used for piece dyeing, each of which differs slightly in the way in which the fabric is handled. Fabrics may be dyed in either continuous or batch processes. In continuous dyeing, the cloth continually passes through the dyebath. This is the cheaper process and, where possible, is used for dyeing large yardages. Batch dyeing is used for shorter fabric lengths.

Some fabrics are dyed in open, Rat widths. Knitted fabrics and those woven materials that are not subject to creasing are handled in “rope” form, that is, bunched together and handled as a narrower strand. They are usually attached at the ends to form a continuous loop. Some dyeing methods are especially suitable for certain types of fabrics and unsuitable for others. Many different kinds of machines can be used for piece dyeing. The great bulk of dyed fabric on the market is dyed in the piece.

Small lots of fabrics of all fibers are dyed in batches. Piece dyeing is thoroughly satisfactory as regards levelness, penetration, and overall fastness, assuming that the proper dyes have been used. Fabric may be piece-dyed whether it is composed of only one kind of fiber or yarn or of blends of different fibers or combinations of different yarns. When the fabric is made of one kind of fiber or yarn, then dyeing is relatively uncomplicated because the one appropriate dye is used. However, when the fabric contains a blend of fibers or combination of different yarns, then special procedures are required which employ different dyes that are each specific for the particular fibers used. These procedures are called union dyeing and cross dyeing.

Union Dyeing:

This process of dyeing piece goods made of different fibers or yarns in one color may be readily accomplished. Although different fibers may require different dyes to obtain the same color, this may be done by putting the appropriate color dye that is specific to each type of fiber into one dye bath.

Cross Dyeing:

One method is a combination of stock dyeing or of yarn dyeing with subsequent piece dyeing. Cross dyeing produces varied effects. For instance, either the warp or the filling yarns may be stock-dyed or yarn-dyed, one set of yarns being left undyed. The fabric is piece-dyed after weaving; thus, color is given to the undyed yarn in a second dyebath, and the yarns that were originally stock-dyed or yarn-dyed acquire some additional coloring, which blends with the piece-dyed portion of the fabric. If yarns of vegetable fibers have been combined with yarns of animal fibers in a fabric that is to be piece-dyed, two separate dye baths must be used. The fabric is dipped into both solutions, each of which affects the fiber for which it has an affinity. This provides colorful effects. Still another method of cross-dyeing is to immerse a fabric composed of two different types of fibers into one dye bath containing two different dyes, one specific for each of the fibers. One of methods of piece dyeing is described below.

Beck Dyeing(Beam dyeing)

Long lengths of cloth that are to be dyed on a continuous process are very often beck-dyed, or box-dyed, by passing the fabric in tension-free rope form through the dyebath. The rope of cloth moves over a rail onto a reel, which immerses it into the dye and then draws the fabric up and forward to the front of the machine. The process is repeated as long as necessary to dye the material uniformly to the desired intensity of color.

Beam dyeing, which is used for lightweight, fairly open-weave fabrics, utilizes the same principle as beam dyeing of yarns. The fabric is wrapped around a perforated beam and immersed in the dyebath. Tightly woven fabrics would not allow sufficient dye penetration; hence, this method must be applied to loosely woven cloth. It has the added advantage of not putting tension or pressure on the goods as they are processed.

Jig Dyeing:

This method utilizes the basic procedure of beck dyeing. However, in jig dyeing, the fabric is held on rollers at full width rather than in rope form as it is passed through the dye bath. The rope of cloth moves over a rail onto a reel, which immerses it into the dye and then draws the fabric up and forward to the front of the machine. The process is repeated as long as necessary to dye the material uniformly to the desired intensity of color. Batch processes that dye fabric in flat widths are jig and beam dyeing. Jig dyeing is a process that places greater tension on the fabric than the beck and jet machines. Fabrics are stretched across two rollers that are placed above a stationary dyebath. The fabric is passed through the dyebath and wound on one roller. The motion is then reversed until the desired exhaustion or depth of shade is achieved. The tension created by placing the fabric on the rollers means that this process must be reserved for fabrics with a fairly close weave that will not lose their shape under tension.

Jig dyeing

Jet dyeing: - Jet dyeing is a newer method that uses propulsion of the dye liquor through the fabric to improve dye penetration. Dyeing takes place in a closed system that carries a fast-moving stream of pressurized dye liquor. A fluid jet of dye penetrates and dyes the fabric. After it passes through this jet, the fabric is floated through an enclosed tube in which the fluid moves faster than the fabric. This prevents the fabric from touching the walls, keeping it constantly immersed in the dyebath. Turbulence is created by locating elbows in the tube. The turbulence aids in diffusing dyes and dyebath auxiliaries. Since no pressure is put on the fabric, even delicate fabrics can be dyed by this process. Jet dyeing has the advantage of being economical in operation and at the same time allowing a high degree of quality control

1. Fabric guide roll

2. Loading & unloading port

3. Header tank

4. U tube

5. Suction control

6. Suction control

7. Suction control

8. Delivery control

9. Main control

10. Filter

11. Heat exchanger

12. Service tank

Solution Pigmenting, or Dope Dyeing

During the production of manmade fibers, a great deal of time and money can be saved if the dye is added to the solution before it is extruded through the spinnerets into filaments. This method also gives a greater degree of colorfastness. A process called solution pigmenting, or dope dyeing, has been used for manmade fibers ranging from rayon through saran and glass fiber.

Garment Dyeing

Certain kinds of non-tailored apparel, such as hosiery, pantyhose, and sweaters can be dyed as completed garments because they are each made of a single component and will not be readily distorted. However, allowance must be made for anticipated shrinkage. A number of garments are loosely packed into a large nylon net bag. The bags are then put into a paddle dyer, which is a tub with a motor-driven paddle that agitates the dye bath. Except for dyeing socks and narrow fabrics, garment dyeing, is the process of dyeing completed garments, remained a rather unimportant novelty until the second half of the 1980s; Industry sources credit two factors with a sharp increase in the amount of garment-dyed apparel. First, fashion demanded small lots of garments from fabrics with stonewashed, ice-washed, tie-dyed, overdyed, and distressed effects. These effects were more readily achieved through garment dyeing than traditional dyeing methods. The second factor was the ability of manufacturers to achieve Quick Response or Just-In-Time production through garment dyeing.

The lead time required for delivery of orders in the traditional dyeing system is about eight weeks. For garment-dyed products lead time is about two weeks. Although the process of garment dyeing is more costly than traditional piece dyeing (estimated at $1 to $3 per item), savings are achieved in the long run because manufacturers and retailers need not maintain large inventories. If undyed merchandise is left from one season, it can be dyed for sale the following season. However, if it has already been dyed and a different color is wanted, it must be overdyed, given a second dyeing to a different color. Manufacturers can be more responsive to fashion trends by producing small dye lots.

Garment dyeing is primarily applied to cotton fabrics; however, high-pressure equipment can be used to process polyester and cotton blends. To achieve consistently good results with garment dyeing, manufacturers must exercise care in a number of areas.

1. Fabric. All fabric used in one garment must come from the same bolt of fabric. If, for example, one trouser leg of a pair of jeans is cut from one bolt of fabric, and the other from another bolt, each leg may dye to a different shade. The result would be jeans in which the legs do not match.

2. Shrinkage. Fabric must also be tested for shrinkage before cutting of garments, and garments must be cut large enough to allow for shrinkage so that sizes will be accurate.

3. Thread. Thread must be chosen carefully and tested to be sure it will accept the dye in the same way as the fabric. One hundred percent cotton thread is preferred, but even with allcotton thread there may be problems. For example, mercerized thread will dye to a darker shade than unmercerized garment fabric. This will make the stitching stand out from the background fabric.

4. Labels, button, zippers. All of these supplies must be compatible with the garment fabric in terms of reaction to the dye and shrinkage. The machines used for garment dyeing are called paddle machines. To avoid entanglement during dyeing, garments are generally placed inside bags. Paddles in the machine rotate, changing directions periodically, to make sure that all pieces being dyed are equally exposed to the dye liquor. Garments are generally washed before dyeing, to remove any finishing materials that would interfere with dyeing, and after dyeing to remove excess dye.

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